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each year since 1970 bleeding space

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scientists from throughout the world

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have gathered in Houston at NASA's

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Johnson Space Center and the lunar and

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planetary institute to exchange ideas

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and information the nineteen seventy

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nine conference marks a special

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observance it is the tenth anniversary

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of the first Apollo landing on the moon

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in the space sciences where it is common

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to deal with eons and millennia ten

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years is a mere blink of the eye get in

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that brief span those here today have

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witnessed almost total upheaval in their

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respective scientific field to say that

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we have undergone a revolution in lunar

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and planetary science is more than just

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rhetoric when you consider how far we've

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before the Apollo era scientists who

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wanted to learn more about the formation

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and evolution of the solar system didn't

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have much to work with from the entire

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solar system they had only two sources

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of materials available for direct

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analysis meteorites that had fallen to

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Earth from outer space and of course the

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but the dynamic nature of the earth has

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resulted in the processing and

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reprocessing of its rocks and soils for

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hundreds of millions of years totally

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as a result on earth Rock more than

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three billion years old is a rare find

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even today most earth materials are far

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younger but meteorites that have fallen

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to earth were found to be extremely old

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the oldest about 4.6 billion years and

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most scientists believe that was near

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the time the solar system formed so

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between the ages of earth rocks and

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meteorites there was at the time a gap

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of a billion and a half years a period

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blown before the Apollo era the idea

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that perhaps knowing the moon would lead

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to a better understanding of Earth and

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the solar system had occurred to many

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investigators and with the telescope

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they charted the dominant light shaded

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areas the highlands pitted and scarred

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from eons of meteoroid impacts and the

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smooth dark basins the Galileo in the

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early 17th century had called the maurya

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for lunar seas they were able to

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calculate the height of lunar mountains

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some of which rise five kilometers above

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the terrain they knew the length of

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ancient scarps or faults which may slice

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across the moon's face for a hundred of

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more kilometers from pole to pole they

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studied craters older ones without lions

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barely visible newer ones with streaks

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of displaced rubble radiating out from

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their centres craters overlying craters

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and craters within craters scientists

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thus came to know the moon's surface

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features in minut detail yet beyond what

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they saw they could only speculate about

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its origin its age its chemical

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composition its structure and about what

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processes had shaped it in the past

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there was no shortage of theories but

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there were very few facts by the late

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1950s improved technology in the form of

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automated spacecraft gave us a new

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perspective of the moon these unmanned

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probes from both the Soviet Union and

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the United States sent back images never

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before seen by the telescope including

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the first views of the moon's backside

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from surveyor spacecraft that soft

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landed on the surface there were even

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some basic data on the nature and

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chemistry of lunar surface materials

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here too was the first concrete proof

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that landing craft and astronauts would

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not sink from site in the Padre lunar

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dust yet for all the centuries of

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telescopic study and more recently the

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flurry of automated moon probes the

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detailed analysis of earth materials and

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meteorites in spite of all that was

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accomplished prior to the Apollo program

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we knew next to nothing about the

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history composition and structure of the

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moon extremely different views were held

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by eminent scientists the world over

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theories and opinions snowball and in

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the absence of facts they clashed

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head-on unless we could obtain pieces of

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the moon for study and analysis

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understanding it would remain an

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she know you're looking great coming up

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now do I twentieth nineteen sixty-nine

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the dream became reality 60-second

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Python forward forward that's pretty

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feet down to an ABS picking up some dust

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City Pete's two and a half down make

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shadows for forward four forward

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drifting to the right little headache

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I'm back right okay engine stop we copy

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you down eagle Griffin fan quality base

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here the eagle has landed tranquility we

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copy on a crafter years of planet the

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detailed on-site exploration of the moon

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had begun and briefly the world stopped

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as people everywhere shared this

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greatest of moments even scientists had

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spent years preparing for this day were

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awestruck by the sights and sounds from

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the memory making the most of their

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brief time on the surface the astronauts

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set up a small science station to return

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data back to earth it was the forerunner

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of other stations erected on later

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missions it was this network that would

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allow scientists to keep track the

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balloons geologic behavior for several

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years tranquility base presented the

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Apollo 11 crew with an assortment of

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rocks and soils most of it appeared to

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be the Celtic rock the most common form

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of volcanic lava whether or not there's

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ever been volcanic eruptions on the moon

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had been one of the major pre Apollo

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debates now within minutes after the

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cruise stepped onto the lunar surface it

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was no longer an issue but quick and

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easy answers would be the exception most

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discoveries about the moon would have to

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be built piece by piece from tiny

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fragments of information during the many

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when Apollo 11 returned to earth a

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carefully developed program of lunar

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samples investigation was set in motion

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geologists physicists chemists

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biologists several hundred scientists

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from here and abroad had pooled their

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although investigators worked with the

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same types of samples they look for

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different things some groups measured

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ages and chemical compositions others

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worked on the chemistry of minerals and

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their atomic structure while some

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experimented defining the properties of

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lunar rocks and soils but not all of the

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investigators worked with samples some

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of them read electronic blips and

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tracings the signals coming from the

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geophysical instruments of the lunar

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science station here a running account

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of the moon's internal activity the

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basis for determining its structure

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would be recorded and deciphered for the

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next several years the techniques and

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procedures for investigating the moon

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the goal now was continued exploration

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to obtain a variety of lunar materials

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from different geological terrain and to

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establish a network of scientific

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stations over the next three and a half

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years Apollo 11 was followed by five

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more lunar landings all of the landing

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sites were near the lunar equator on the

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earth-facing side first mission to last

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big factor was the lunar rover used on

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the last three missions with this new

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mobility crewmen ranged further from

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home base and along with modifications

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to the lunar module and the spacesuit

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they were able to stay longer at the

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exploration site on the final mission

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astronauts could extend their total

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exploration time to 75 hours quite a

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contrast to the two and a half hours of

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Apollo 11 more and better measurements

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were also transmitted from the lunar

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science stations which grew steadily in

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size and sophistication sample

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collecting to became more selective and

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better documented on the later missions

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and for the first time on Apollo 17 a

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geologist was a member of the crew on

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December 14 1972 the last Apollo crew

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lifted from the lunar surface and with

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them the exploratory phase of Apollo

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came to an end but the scientific phase

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which by then was well into its third

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year had already answered many of the

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the story that began to emerge told of a

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moon far more interesting and complex

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than ever anticipated for one thing moon

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rocks were found to be very old falling

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in a range from about three billion to

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well over four billion years

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significantly moon rock ages began about

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where the ages of the oldest preserved

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earth rocks left off so in learning

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about the moons past scientists were

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also filling in pieces of the missing

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history of the earth no new chemical

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elements were discovered but there were

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minerals that scientists had not seen

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before the moon was found to have no

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free oxygen no water and no trace of

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life present or past seismic activity

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inside the moon was found to be

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extremely weak only about 110 billions

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of the activity inside the earth except

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for the impact of small meteoroids and

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the steady stream of atomic particles

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from the Sun the moon explored by the

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astronauts had been quiet and inactive

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for the last three billion years but the

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investigations show it was not always so

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calm rocks from the lunar highlands

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revealed an extremely violent beginning

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almost four and a half billion years ago

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shortly after the moon had formed its

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entire outer shell was a seething ocean

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of molten rock melting to adapt the from

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100 to 300 kilometres

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during the next 100 million years it

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began to cool and the outer shell began

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to solidify minerals began to

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crystallize high-density minerals tended

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to sink low density minerals floated to

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the top when cooling and solidification

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were complete these new distributions of

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minerals had formed the separate layers

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of crust mantle and core this process

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caught a lot of scientists by surprise

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melting and separation in the layers had

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never been proposed for the moon what's

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left of the early lunar crust after

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being torn apart by meteoroids is the

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light colored material we now call the

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but even as it formed meteoroids were

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pounding it to bits scientists are not

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sure about the frequency or the

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intensity of cratering during the next

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billion years however they are certain

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that about four billion years ago the

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devastation reached a peak the clues

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were found in a class of samples called

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breccias which are made up of fragments

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of different rocks all broken and welded

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together by heat some containing tiny

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spheres of glass with Bret she is

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consistently showing a gym Prince

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centered around four billion years the

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evidence was compelling at that time the

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lunar surface must have been bombarded

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and broken up on a massive scale a

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population of extremely large bodies

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some as much as 50 kilometres across

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smashed into the moon they blasted the

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crust apart and gouged out the giant

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Mari basins the largest of the lasons

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Mari yttrium is big enough to

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accommodate most of Western Europe the

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barrage in the moon was so intense that

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most likely the earth received a

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simultaneous pounding probably the whole

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inner solar system was teeming with the

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leftovers of formation the loose debris

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that had not been collected into planets

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after this major Cataclysm the cratering

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rate began to subside and the solar

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system rapidly became a fairly clean

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place by now the moon the earth and the

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00:17:10,960 --> 00:17:06,350
other planets had swept up most of the

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00:17:13,000 --> 00:17:10,970
loose debris the next stage of lunar

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00:17:17,370 --> 00:17:13,010
history was recorded in the basaltic

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00:17:22,710 --> 00:17:20,100
some 100 million years after the heavy

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00:17:25,170 --> 00:17:22,720
bombardment ended heat from decay of

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00:17:28,950 --> 00:17:25,180
radioactive elements began to build up

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00:17:32,490 --> 00:17:28,960
inside the moon eventually getting hot

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00:17:35,190 --> 00:17:32,500
enough to melt the rocky material in

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00:17:37,410 --> 00:17:35,200
time as the melting spread the

289
00:17:39,390 --> 00:17:37,420
accumulated lavas were forced upward

290
00:17:41,550 --> 00:17:39,400
through false and fissures to the

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00:17:51,120 --> 00:17:41,560
surface where they began to fill the

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00:17:53,130 --> 00:17:51,130
large basins filling the basins forming

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00:17:56,220 --> 00:17:53,140
the lunar Marya much as they now appear

294
00:18:01,710 --> 00:17:56,230
was not however the result of a single

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00:18:04,560 --> 00:18:01,720
rampaging lava flow age dating show that

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00:18:06,840 --> 00:18:04,570
lava was extruded intermittently in one

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00:18:10,470 --> 00:18:06,850
place or another for almost a billion

298
00:18:15,990 --> 00:18:10,480
years from three point nine to three

299
00:18:18,450 --> 00:18:16,000
billion years ago after that the moon

300
00:18:21,090 --> 00:18:18,460
settled down to a quieter existence and

301
00:18:25,500 --> 00:18:21,100
has remained essentially the same to the

302
00:18:27,390 --> 00:18:25,510
present day among the subtle changes

303
00:18:30,330 --> 00:18:27,400
which have continued on the moon is

304
00:18:32,820 --> 00:18:30,340
solar wind bombardment the steady flow

305
00:18:36,900 --> 00:18:32,830
of atomic particles streaming outward

306
00:18:39,510 --> 00:18:36,910
from the Sun particles striking the moon

307
00:18:42,120 --> 00:18:39,520
many millions of years ago left their

308
00:18:46,500 --> 00:18:42,130
evidence embedded in lunar materials and

309
00:18:48,780 --> 00:18:46,510
these can be detected today this

310
00:18:50,940 --> 00:18:48,790
scanning electron microscope for example

311
00:18:53,280 --> 00:18:50,950
is studying the tracks left by solar

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00:18:56,790 --> 00:18:53,290
particles as they pass through a lunar

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00:18:58,950 --> 00:18:56,800
sample by making such precise

314
00:19:01,050 --> 00:18:58,960
measurements scientists are able to

315
00:19:05,040 --> 00:19:01,060
construct a long-term history of the

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00:19:07,050 --> 00:19:05,050
sun's activity the surprising result is

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00:19:11,210 --> 00:19:07,060
that the Sun has been a fairly well

318
00:19:14,130 --> 00:19:11,220
behaved star for many millions of years

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00:19:16,760 --> 00:19:14,140
there were no noticeable Sun deviations

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00:19:19,620 --> 00:19:16,770
even during the Ice Ages of Earth a

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00:19:24,910 --> 00:19:19,630
finding attends to weaken theories the

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00:19:31,630 --> 00:19:27,860
the samples did not completely satisfy a

323
00:19:36,230 --> 00:19:31,640
major pre Apollo enigma how the moon

324
00:19:39,400 --> 00:19:36,240
originated processing of a lunar

325
00:19:42,980 --> 00:19:39,410
materials by melting of the outer shell

326
00:19:46,490 --> 00:19:42,990
meteoroid bombardment and the long

327
00:19:49,750 --> 00:19:46,500
volcanic phase destroyed all traces of

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00:19:52,400 --> 00:19:49,760
the moon's primitive starting material

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00:19:54,680 --> 00:19:52,410
however investigators have recently

330
00:19:57,470 --> 00:19:54,690
discovered certain earth-moon chemical

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00:19:58,970 --> 00:19:57,480
similarities that can be explained only

332
00:20:02,270 --> 00:19:58,980
if they originated in the same

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00:20:05,710 --> 00:20:02,280
neighborhood but the mechanism of origin

334
00:20:08,480 --> 00:20:05,720
could have happened any of three ways

335
00:20:10,460 --> 00:20:08,490
the moon could have been torn from the

336
00:20:13,370 --> 00:20:10,470
primitive earth and captured in its

337
00:20:18,230 --> 00:20:15,800
the moon at earth could have accreted

338
00:20:23,480 --> 00:20:18,240
from particles in the same vicinity at

339
00:20:25,430 --> 00:20:23,490
the same time or the moon could have

340
00:20:28,730 --> 00:20:25,440
condensed out of an early primitive

341
00:20:31,220 --> 00:20:28,740
atmosphere surrounding earth lunar

342
00:20:39,800 --> 00:20:31,230
origin remains an open question that

343
00:20:42,260 --> 00:20:39,810
will not be easily solved before the

344
00:20:44,770 --> 00:20:42,270
Apollo program scientists were struck by

345
00:20:47,240 --> 00:20:44,780
the differences in the earth and whom

346
00:20:49,550 --> 00:20:47,250
many believe the moon was a solid

347
00:20:51,860 --> 00:20:49,560
homogeneous sphere related more to

348
00:20:55,670 --> 00:20:51,870
primitive meteorites than it was to the

349
00:20:58,340 --> 00:20:55,680
planets but after analyzing lunar

350
00:21:00,830 --> 00:20:58,350
materials seeing the patterns of

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00:21:03,170 --> 00:21:00,840
chemical elements the minerals that had

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00:21:05,530 --> 00:21:03,180
formed from these elements on the

353
00:21:08,720 --> 00:21:05,540
arrangements of these men rules in rocks

354
00:21:11,300 --> 00:21:08,730
they came to realize that the moon had

355
00:21:14,900 --> 00:21:11,310
all the earmarks of an evolved planet

356
00:21:16,790 --> 00:21:14,910
with a history all its own the

357
00:21:18,980 --> 00:21:16,800
difference they found was in the

358
00:21:21,860 --> 00:21:18,990
separate paths of evolution the Earth

359
00:21:24,110 --> 00:21:21,870
and Moon have taken primarily the result

360
00:21:28,430 --> 00:21:24,120
of their different sizes and starting

361
00:21:30,890 --> 00:21:28,440
conditions if the earth and moon formed

362
00:21:33,050 --> 00:21:30,900
near each other they probably started

363
00:21:38,630 --> 00:21:33,060
out with a similar mixture of elements

364
00:21:41,630 --> 00:21:38,640
such as aluminum silicon and oxygen like

365
00:21:43,910 --> 00:21:41,640
the moon the earth probably experienced

366
00:21:48,320 --> 00:21:43,920
an early melting phase that resulted in

367
00:21:50,630 --> 00:21:48,330
its separation in two layers the heavy

368
00:21:53,270 --> 00:21:50,640
bombardment phase discovered on the moon

369
00:21:54,499 --> 00:21:53,280
must have been sustained equally by the

370
00:21:57,169 --> 00:21:54,509
earth

371
00:22:00,019 --> 00:21:57,179
but during the phase of internal melting

372
00:22:03,169 --> 00:22:00,029
and volcanism their common ancestry

373
00:22:07,339 --> 00:22:03,179
began to diverge in a way that would set

374
00:22:10,219 --> 00:22:07,349
them apart forever for one thing the

375
00:22:12,039 --> 00:22:10,229
moon being smaller had a lesser share of

376
00:22:14,919 --> 00:22:12,049
radioactive elements than the earth and

377
00:22:20,209 --> 00:22:14,929
these are the elements that in decaying

378
00:22:23,299 --> 00:22:20,219
generate heat also the heat that was

379
00:22:25,999 --> 00:22:23,309
produced was lost more rapidly simply

380
00:22:30,979 --> 00:22:26,009
because the smaller the body the faster

381
00:22:33,439 --> 00:22:30,989
it loses heat the larger earth with a

382
00:22:36,519 --> 00:22:33,449
larger store of heat making elements and

383
00:22:39,339 --> 00:22:36,529
the potential to hold heat longer

384
00:22:41,899 --> 00:22:39,349
developed a massive molten iron core

385
00:22:47,269 --> 00:22:41,909
that would help keep our planet running

386
00:22:50,930 --> 00:22:47,279
as it does now for billions of years the

387
00:22:53,209 --> 00:22:50,940
intense heat powers volcanoes recycling

388
00:22:56,869 --> 00:22:53,219
rocky materials to continually produce

389
00:22:59,779 --> 00:22:56,879
new crust of the surface heat from

390
00:23:02,559 --> 00:22:59,789
radioactive decay also created a narrow

391
00:23:05,689 --> 00:23:02,569
zone of molten rock just below the crust

392
00:23:09,999 --> 00:23:05,699
it acts as a sort of lubricant allowing

393
00:23:13,129 --> 00:23:10,009
the crust to shift about as thin plates

394
00:23:15,229 --> 00:23:13,139
it is these lateral plate movements that

395
00:23:21,680 --> 00:23:15,239
have given the earth that's wide variety

396
00:23:29,480 --> 00:23:25,260
the moon with a crust so thick and rigid

397
00:23:32,610 --> 00:23:29,490
never experienced lateral playful but

398
00:23:34,620 --> 00:23:32,620
its mountains which tend to lie in rings

399
00:23:37,200 --> 00:23:34,630
on the periphery of the large basins

400
00:23:38,910 --> 00:23:37,210
were built from materials displaced from

401
00:23:43,440 --> 00:23:38,920
the basins when they were formed by

402
00:23:45,900 --> 00:23:43,450
impact nor were lunar rills formed by

403
00:23:48,120 --> 00:23:45,910
crustal shifting or by the cutting

404
00:23:51,540 --> 00:23:48,130
action of water as they often are on

405
00:23:54,000 --> 00:23:51,550
earth scientists believe they are old

406
00:23:58,860 --> 00:23:54,010
lava tubes that have collapsed over the

407
00:24:01,140 --> 00:23:58,870
last 3 billion years at the time the

408
00:24:04,470 --> 00:24:01,150
moon was losing heat it was also losing

409
00:24:08,280 --> 00:24:04,480
its volcanic gases and it is from such

410
00:24:10,560 --> 00:24:08,290
gases that atmospheres form but with a

411
00:24:13,770 --> 00:24:10,570
weak gravitational field again the

412
00:24:18,390 --> 00:24:13,780
result of size the moon was unable to

413
00:24:21,660 --> 00:24:18,400
retain even the heaviest gases Earth's

414
00:24:23,790 --> 00:24:21,670
gravity held most of its gases gases

415
00:24:27,840 --> 00:24:23,800
that eventually formed a primitive

416
00:24:40,580 --> 00:24:30,720
and from that atmosphere came torrents

417
00:24:47,230 --> 00:24:43,220
the patient's were filled and the earth

418
00:24:50,120 --> 00:24:47,240
had oceans and seas lakes and rivers and

419
00:25:04,639 --> 00:24:50,130
from the water life itself would

420
00:25:09,779 --> 00:25:07,560
the moon with no chance of forming an

421
00:25:12,570 --> 00:25:09,789
atmosphere could not develop even the

422
00:25:15,749 --> 00:25:12,580
lowest forms of life it was just too

423
00:25:18,089 --> 00:25:15,759
small to make it after about a billion

424
00:25:21,440 --> 00:25:18,099
and a half years it reached the terminal

425
00:25:24,089 --> 00:25:21,450
phase of its relatively short evolution

426
00:25:26,849 --> 00:25:24,099
the story of the moon is still not

427
00:25:28,859 --> 00:25:26,859
complete although its historical outline

428
00:25:31,649 --> 00:25:28,869
once it formed has been firmly

429
00:25:34,019 --> 00:25:31,659
established its basic structure and

430
00:25:37,619 --> 00:25:34,029
chemistry have been determined many

431
00:25:39,930 --> 00:25:37,629
questions remain only about ten percent

432
00:25:41,999 --> 00:25:39,940
of the samples returned by Apollo

433
00:25:45,029 --> 00:25:42,009
astronauts have been investigated in

434
00:25:49,109 --> 00:25:45,039
detail thus far so a lot of work lies

435
00:25:51,479 --> 00:25:49,119
ahead deciphering the complex stretches

436
00:25:54,930 --> 00:25:51,489
and core samples is slow and tedious

437
00:25:56,820 --> 00:25:54,940
work but it is here that extremely

438
00:25:59,389 --> 00:25:56,830
complicated measurements are now being

439
00:26:02,909 --> 00:25:59,399
made measurements aimed at uncovering

440
00:26:05,909 --> 00:26:02,919
facts about the moon's origin its first

441
00:26:17,910 --> 00:26:05,919
100 million years its volcanic history

442
00:26:23,310 --> 00:26:20,850
when will we return to the moon no one

443
00:26:27,840 --> 00:26:23,320
can say for sure but certainly it has a

444
00:26:30,540 --> 00:26:27,850
role to play in the future for a science

445
00:26:32,790 --> 00:26:30,550
colony its location the lack of a

446
00:26:36,720 --> 00:26:32,800
distorting atmosphere make it a natural

447
00:26:38,970 --> 00:26:36,730
choice as a staging base the moon may

448
00:26:42,780 --> 00:26:38,980
someday launch exploratory missions to

449
00:26:45,000 --> 00:26:42,790
the planets and beyond the moon is also

450
00:26:46,880 --> 00:26:45,010
a potential mining site for extraction

451
00:26:51,720 --> 00:26:46,890
of its abundant storehouse of metals

452
00:26:53,400 --> 00:26:51,730
aluminum titanium calcium iron raw

453
00:26:56,840 --> 00:26:53,410
materials that could be used for

454
00:27:00,330 --> 00:26:56,850
building large-scale structures in space

455
00:27:02,820 --> 00:27:00,340
today after 10 years of lunar and

456
00:27:09,060 --> 00:27:02,830
planetary investigations interest and

457
00:27:10,860 --> 00:27:09,070
momentum continued to grow the lessons

458
00:27:13,490 --> 00:27:10,870
learned from the moon are being applied

459
00:27:20,030 --> 00:27:13,500
to the earth and to the other planets

460
00:27:26,190 --> 00:27:22,860
the process is observed on these planets

461
00:27:31,860 --> 00:27:26,200
are as strange as ever but no longer are

462
00:27:33,720 --> 00:27:31,870
they mysterious scientists see them as

463
00:27:37,230 --> 00:27:33,730
extensions of patterns which are now

464
00:27:39,000 --> 00:27:37,240
familiar and in time they will

465
00:27:41,850 --> 00:27:39,010
understand their structure their

466
00:27:45,210 --> 00:27:41,860
evolution how they relate to earth and

467
00:27:49,710 --> 00:27:45,220
eventually how this solar system of ours

468
00:27:51,640 --> 00:27:49,720
came to be Apollo was much more than a

469
00:27:54,300 --> 00:27:51,650
triumph of Technology

470
00:27:56,620 --> 00:27:54,310
like Columbus voyage to the New World

471
00:27:59,410 --> 00:27:56,630
the Wright brothers flights at Kitty

472
00:28:01,600 --> 00:27:59,420
Hawk the Apollo missions to the moon

473
00:28:06,490 --> 00:28:01,610
mark a major turning point in human